UNIT VIII (10 MARKS) SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Class Structure ; Religious Movements ; Architecture ; Foreign and European Traders.
CLASS STRUCTURE:
The Indian society was divided into three classes during the Mughal period. These three classes were – the high class, the middle class, the lower class. High class was constituted of the Emperor, Nobles, Mansabdars & other high officials of the state. It was the ruling class. The middle class was constituted of the merchants & farmers. The lower class consisted of labourers & poor people.
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS:
Conflicting trends of liberalism & catholicity on the one hand, the rigid exclusiveness & conservatism , on the other, were noticeable both within the hindu & Islam religions. The Bhakti movement continued apace. Outside the courtly circles, the Sant parampara continued to grow & several new panths arose in the 17th & 18th centuries. Among the notable sants of the late medieval period were sant Malukdas(1573-1671) who was active in the region around Allahabad & Lucknow; prannath (1617-1693) an ascetic leader in the Bundelkhand area; Dharanidas & Dariya Sahib in Bihar.
Amongst the new movements was the Sikh movement in the Punjab & Maharashtra dharma in Maharashtra. The sikh movement had its origin with the preaching’s of nanak. But its development is closely linked with the institution of guruship. Another saint, dadu preached a non-sectarian (nipakh) path & refused to identify himself with either the Hindus or the Muslims. The same liberal trend can be seen in the life & works of tukaram, the supreme exponent of bhakti in Maharashtra at pandharpur , which had become the centre of Maharashtra dharma & where worship of vithoba, a form of Vishnu, had become popular. Among the Muslims, Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi was the most renowned figure in the Muslim orthodox & revivalist movement of the time.
Architecture: Mughal period was the period of glory in the field of Architecture. They also laid out many formal gardens with running water. In fact, use of running water even in their palaces was a special feature of the Mughals.
Babur: Mughal architecture came into prominence with the rule of Babur who was the first Mughal emperor in India in 1526. Babur`s victory over Ibrahim Lodi, initiated the erection of a mosque at Panipat succeeded by another called the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya.
Akbar: Akbar was the first Mughal ruler during whose rule we find the emergence of wonderful Mughal architecture, which rapidly progressed with his reign. He built massively and the style was unique which was developed in his rule. Most of Akbar`s buildings are almost entirely in red sandstone, exempted at times through marble inlay. Fatehpur Sikri which is located 26 miles west of Agra was constructed in the late 1500s. Fatehpur Sikri defines Akbar`s finest styles of architecture. The great mosque is one such epitome of architectural brilliance unmatched in elegance and splendor. The Tomb of Akbar`s father Humayun, Akbar`s tomb at Sikandra are some such finest work of architectural magnificence.
Jahangir: Jahangir`s reign was noted for architectural works. His style basically was Persian like his great mosque at Lahore, which is covered with enameled tiles. Akbar`s mausoleum was built in Jahangir`s time, but Jahangir`s interests were painting and garden architecture. "Verinag" and "Chashma-Shahi" are gardens built by Jahangir beautifully around spring. The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered wholly by pietra dura mosaic. The shalimar Gardens on the shore of Kashmir`s Dal lake was also magnificently built by him. Jahangir was the person who was responsible for the development of the Mughal garden.
Shahjahan: Mughal architecture reached its perfection in Shahajahan`s reign(1627-1658). Humayun`s tomb was the first of the tombs. The Taj Mahal is a magnificent piece of art by Mughals. The Red Fort contains the imperial Mughal Palace, which is situated in Delhi, is again one of Shahjahan`s excellence. The Moti Masjid is highly representative of purity, balance, and gracefulness which was his appreciable contributions to the Agra Fort. The Jama Mosque of Delhi and the Pearl Mosque of Agra are reminiscent of the style that was eminent in Mughal era.
Taj Mahal: Taj Mahal, is the finest example of Mughal architecture combining Persian, Turkish and Indian styles. There are inscribed texts from the Koran round the tall doorways which appear like designs. The letters 30 feet or more above the line of the eye appear to be exactly of the same size as those a foot above the floor level, this is absolutely a revelation of the great mastery and perspective of the artists. It is made in white marble. The Taj Mahal is described as "A Dream in Marble" and the mosaic is studded with onyx, jasper, cornelian, malachite, carbuncle, lapis lazuli and precious stones. The Taj Mahal`s approximated estimate is 32 million rupees, but it is timeless and priceless due to its beauty and valor. The Taj is among the seven wonders of the world, and cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world`s heritage"
Aurangzeb: He was a economic minded. Aurangzeb`s concern seems to be for garden architecture than construction of palaces. Fatehbad near Agra is one of the most impressive of these gardens.
FOREIGN AND EUROPEAN TRADERS: Trade & commerce expanded in India during the 17th century due to political Integration of India under Mughal rule & establishment of conditions of law & order over extensive areas. The Mughals paid attention to roads & sarais which made trade easier. A uniform tax was levied on goods at the point of their entry into the empire. The Mughals minted silver rupees of high purity which became a standard coin in India & thus helped Indian trade. Between the middle of the 16th century & middle of the 18th century India’s overseas trade steadily expanded. This was due to trading activities of the various European companies which came to India during this period. The monopoly of Indian trade by the Arabs & Venetians was sought to be broken by direct trade with India by the Portuguese. The Portuguese were first to arrive in India in 1498 AD. The arrival of the Vasco da Gama in Calicut in 1498 inaugurated an era of intense commercial activity by European trading companies. Portuguese were the first to erect a fort on Indian soil in, at Cochin in 1503. The Portuguese dominated the black pepper trade. They shipped cotton cloth produced in Gujarat & Coromandel to Indonesia & utilized the profits to defray the cost of spices. Other Indian commodities sold abroad included Indigo,which remained a major item of export till th 19th century.After 1650, raw silk from Bengal became an important source of supply to the silk weaving industry of Italy & France. Saltpeter was in demand among European armament industries.
Indian cotton cloth also began to be shipped to Europe. More costly cottons, such as calico & chintz, & Indian silk also began to attract overseas buyers. In 1684, the company imported 26.9 million square meters of cotton cloth from India.
In 1606, the Dutch succeeded in obtaining a farman from the sultan of Golconda, permitting them to establish a factory at Masulipatam. This region was famous for its fine chintz, 1n 1610 the dutch also gained commercial concessions in Pulicat.
The English established their factory at Surat in 1612. They sent an embassy headed by Thomas Roe to Jahangir’s court. The English company was permitted to set up trading centers at Agra,Burhanpur, Patna & other important cities.Many of the European trading centers developed into virtually autonomous fortified settlements.
The activities of the trading companies gave a boost to the Indian economy. The high visibility of European trading companies did not imply the eclipse of Indian traders, who retained their dominant status in the field.
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